The nature of error, error detection and automaticity in skilled behaviour

Abstract

This series of research attempted to clarify a number of issues relating to highly skilled performance including the frequency and nature of errors, the error detection capabilities and the purported role of automaticity in the production of skilled behaviour. The first study applied Rasmussen’s (1980) skill-, rule- and knowledge-based behaviour taxonomy to examine the frequency and nature of errors in skilled and highly skilled behaviour. Results provided an estimate of the frequency of skill-based errors, which has been unavailable in previous diary studies. A significantly lower proportion of skill-based errors were reported by elite compared with recreational golfers, suggesting that a characteristic of highly skilled behaviour is a reduction in the tendency toward minimal levels of cognitive control exhibited in everyday tasks and by those of lesser skill. In order to establish the level of insight skilled performers have into their actions, the second study manipulated visual feedback to examine the detection of error in elite and recreational golfers. Results indicated that an increase in skill was associated with an increase in the ability to detect error, however the error detection capability of elite players was far from perfect with fewer than 60% of marginal errors detected. Visual confirmation of the outcome is apparently necessary for precise error detection even in highly skilled golfers. In addition, both elite and recreational golfers attributed errors to poor concentration, yet this result appeared to be dependent upon observation of the error. Elite and recreational golfers reported attending to cues relating to the target, rhythm and technique during execution of the golf swing. The final series of experiments examined the effect of a sudden irrelevant sound on the performance of elite and recreational golfers. The first phase of this series of experiments demonstrated that an irrelevant sound occurring during the golf swing could disrupt the performance of elite and recreational players. The second experiment suggested that, in elite golfers, the disruption of performance was most likely an orienting response to the sudden noise. The results of these studies suggest that although attentional resources become available with the progression to skilled behaviour, even a highly proceduralised movement sequence, such as the golf swing, never becomes completely resource free. The final experiment suggested that increasing the attentional engagement of elite golfers could attenuate the negative impact of a sudden irrelevant sound on performance. Whilst there is no question of a tendency towards automaticity with extended practice, overall the research questions the proposition that highly skilled behaviour is characterised by a literal interpretation of automaticity, either in the planning or execution of movement, or in relation to error detection.